Civilizația de pe Valea Indului: Diferență între versiuni

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Civilizația de pe Valea Indului

Zonă geografică	Bazinele fluviilor Ind și Ghaggar-Hakra, nord-vestul India și estul Pakistanului
Perioadă	Asia de Sud în Epoca Bronzului
Perioadă	c. 3300 – c. 1300 î.Hr.
Situl tip	Harappa
Situri importante	Harappa, Mohenjo-daro (27°19′45″N 68°08′20″E ({{PAGENAME}}) / 27.32917°N 68.13889°E), Dholavira, Ganeriwala, și Rakhigarhi
Precedat de	Mehrgarh
Urmat de	Cultura ceramicii pictate gri Cultura cimitirului H
Modifică date / text

Ruine excavate ale Mohenjo-daro (provincia Sindh, Pakistan), arătând Marea Baie în fundal. Mohenjo-daro, pe malul drept al Indului, e un sit de patrimoniu UNESCO, primul sit din Asia de Sud care să fie declarat

Civilizația de pe Valea Indului (CVI) a fost o civilizație a Epocii Bronzului din regiunile nord-vestice ale Asiei de Sud, care a trăit între 3300 î.Hr. și 1300 î.Hr. și în forma sa matură între 2600 î.Hr. și 1900 î.Hr..^[1]^[a] Împreună cu Egiptul Antic și Mesopotamia, a fost una dintre cele trei civilizații timpurii din Orientul Apropiat și Asia de Sud, iar dintre cele trei, cea mai răspândită, siturile sale acoperind o zonă care se întinde din nord-estul Afganistanului, prin o mare parte din Pakistan, și până în vestul și nord-vestul Indiei.^[2]^[b] A înflorit în bazinele fluviului Ind, care curge prin Pakistan și de-a lungul unui sistem de râuri perene, în mare parte hrănite cu musoni, care în trecut curgeau în vecinătatea râului sezonier Ghaggar-Hakra din nord-vestul Indiei și estul Pakistanului.^[1]^[3]

Orașele civilizației au fost remarcate pentru planificarea urbană, casele de cărămidă coaptă, sistemele de desecare elaborate, sistemele de alimentare cu apă, grupurile de clădiri mari nerezidențiale și noile tehnici în artizanat (produse de carneol, sculptarea sigiliilor) și metalurgia (cupru, bronz, plumb, și staniu).^[4] E foarte probabil ca marile orașe Mohenjo-daro și Harappa să fi avut populații între 30.000 și 60.000 de indivizi,^[5]^[c] iar civilizația însăși în timpul înfloririi sale să fi cuprins între unu și cinci milioane de indivizi.^[6]^[d]

Uscarea treptată a solului regiunii în mileniul 3 î.Hr. ar fi putut să fie impulsul inițial pentru urbanizarea asociată civilizației, dar, în cele din urmă, musonii mai slabi și reducerea aprovizionării cu apă au dus la dispariția civilizației, și la împrăștierea populația spre est și sud.^[7]^[e]

Civilizația de pe Valea Indului este, de asemenea, cunoscută și ca civilizația harappa sau civilizația harappă, după unul dintre siturile sale principale, Harappa, primul dintre siturile care a fost excavat la începutul secolului 20 în ceea ce era atunci provincia Punjab a Indiei Britanice și care acum e Pakistanul.^[8]^[f] Descoperirea Harappei și la scurt timp după aceea a Mohenjo-daro-ului a fost punctul culminant al lucrărilor începute în 1861 odată cu fondarea Studiului Arheologic din India în timpul Indiei Britanice.^[9] Cu toate acestea, au existat culturi anterioare și ulterioare numite adesea harappa timpuriu și harappa târziu în aceeași zonă; din acest motiv, civilizația harappa este uneori numită harappa matur pentru a o deosebi de aceste alte culturi.

Până în 2002, au fost raportate peste 1.000 de orașe și așezări harappe mature, dintre care puțin sub 100 fuseseră excavate.^[10]^[g]^[12]^[13] Totuși există doar cinci situri urbane majore:^[14]^[h] Harappa, Mohenjo-daro (parte a Patrimoniului Mondial UNESCO), Dholavira, Ganeriwala și Rakhigarhi.^[15]^[i] Culturile harappe timpurii au fost precedate de sate agricole neolitice locale, din care au fost populate câmpiile râurilor.^[16]^[17]

Limba harappă nu este atestată direct, iar apartenența sa este necunoscută, deoarece scrierea harappă a rămas nedescifrată.^[18] O relație cu familia dravidiană sau cu cea elamo-dravidiană este favorizată de o partea a cercetătorilor.^[19]^[20]

Nume

Civilizația de pe Valea Indului este numită după sistemul fluvial al Indului în ale cărui câmpii aluviale au fost identificate și excavate siturile timpurii ale civilizației.^[21]^[j] Urmând o tradiție în arheologie, civilizația este denumită uneori civilizația harappa sau civilizația harappă, după Harappa, primul sit care a fost excavat în anii 1920; acest lucru este valabil mai ales pentru utilizarea folosită de Studiul Arheologic din India după independența Indiei în 1947.^[22]^[k]

Termenul „Ghaggar-Hakra” figurează în mod evident în etichetele moderne aplicate civilizației de pe Valea Indului datorită unui număr bun de situri găsite de-a lungul râului Ghaggar-Hakra în nord-vestul Indiei și estul Pakistanului.^[23] Termenii „Civilizația Ind-Sarasvati” și „Civilizația Sindhu-Saraswati” au fost, de asemenea, folosiți în literatură după o identificare presupusă a lui Ghaggar-Hakra cu râul Saraswati descris în primele capitole din Rig Veda, o colecție de imnuri scrise în sanscrita arhaică în mileniul 2 î.Hr..^[24]^[25] Cercetări geofizice recente sugerează că spre deosebire de Sarasvati, ale cărui descrieri în Rig Veda sunt cele ale unui râu hrănit cu zăpadă, Ghaggar-Hakra a fost un sistem de râuri perene hrănite cu musoni, care au devenit sezoniere în perioada în care civilizația s-a diminuat, aproximativ acum 4.000 de ani.^[3]^[l]

Note

^ Wright: "Mesopotamia and Egypt ... co-existed with the Indus civilization during its florescence between 2600 and 1900 BC."^[1]
^ Wright: "The Indus civilisation is one of three in the 'Ancient East' that, along with Mesopotamia and Pharaonic Egypt, was a cradle of early civilisation in the Old World (Childe, 1950). Mesopotamia and Egypt were longer-lived, but coexisted with Indus civilisation during its florescence between 2600 and 1900 B.C. Of the three, the Indus was the most expansive, extending from today's northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and India."^[2]
^ Dyson: "Mohenjo-daro and Harappa may each have contained between 30,000 and 60,000 people (perhaps more in the former case). Water transport was crucial for the provisioning of these and other cities. That said, the vast majority of people lived in rural areas. At the height of the Indus valley civilization the subcontinent may have contained 4-6 million people."^[5]
^ McIntosh: "The enormous potential of the greater Indus region offered scope for huge population increase; by the end of the Mature Harappan period, the Harappans are estimated to have numbered somewhere between 1 and 5 million, probably well below the region's carrying capacity."^[6]
^ Eroare la citare: Etichetă <ref> invalidă; niciun text nu a fost furnizat pentru referințele numite Note-Brooke
^ Habib: "Harappa, in Sahiwal district of west Punjab, Pakistan, had long been known to archaeologists as an extensive site on the Ravi river, but its true significance as a major city of an early great civilization remained unrecognized until the discovery of Mohenjo-daro near the banks of the Indus, in the Larkana district of Sindh, by Rakhaldas Banerji in 1922. Sir John Marshall, then Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India, used the term 'Indus civilization' for the culture discovered at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, a term doubly apt because of the geographical context implied in the name 'Indus' and the presence of cities implied in the word 'civilization'. Others, notably the Archaeological Survey of India after Independence, have preferred to call it `Harappan', or 'Mature Harappan', taking Harappa to be its type-site."^[8]
^ Possehl: "There are 1,056 Mature Harappan sites that have been reported of which 96 have been excavated."^[11]
^ Coningham and Young: "More than 1,000 settlements belonging to the Integrated Era have been identified (Singh, 2008: 137), but there are only five significant urban sites at the peak of the settlement hierarchy (Smith, 2.006a: 110) (Figure 6.2).These are: Mohenjo-daro in the lower Indus plain; Harappa in the western Punjab; Ganweriwala in Cholistan; Dholavira in western Gujarat; and Rakhigarhi in Haryana. Mohenjo-daro covered an area of more than 250 hectares, Harappa exceeded 150 hectares, Dholavira 100 hectares and Ganweriwala and Rakhigarhi around 80 hectares each."^[14]
^ Wright: "Five major Indus cities are discussed in this chapter. During the Urban period, the early town of Harappa expanded in size and population and became a major center in the Upper Indus. Other cities emerging during the Urban period include Mohenjo-daro in the Lower Indus, Dholavira to the south on the western edge of peninsular India in Kutch, Ganweriwala in Cholistan, and a fifth city, Rakhigarhi, on the Ghaggar-Hakra. Rakhigarhi will be discussed briefly in view of the limited published material."^[15]
^ Wright: "Unable to state the age of the civilization, he went on to observe that the Indus (which he (John Marshall) named after the river system) artifacts differed from any known other civilizations in the region, ..."^[21]
^ Habib: "Sir John Marshall, then Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India, used the term 'Indus civilization' for the culture discovered at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, a term doubly apt because of the geographical context implied in the name 'Indus' and the presence of cities implied in the word 'civilization'. Others, notably the Archaeological Survey of India after Independence, have preferred to call it 'Harappan', or 'Mature Harappan', taking Harappa to be its type-site."^[22]
^ Giosan (2012): "Numerous speculations have advanced the idea that the Ghaggar-Hakra fluvial system, at times identified with the lost mythical river of Sarasvati (e.g., 4, 5, 7, 19), was a large glacier fed Himalayan river. Potential sources for this river include the Yamuna River, the Sutlej River, or both rivers. However, the lack of large-scale incision on the interfluve demonstrates that large, glacier-fed rivers did not flow across the Ghaggar-Hakra region during the Holocene. ... The present Ghaggar-Hakra valley and its tributary rivers are currently dry or have seasonal flows. Yet rivers were undoubtedly active in this region during the Urban Harappan Phase. We recovered sandy fluvial deposits approximately 5,400 y old at Fort Abbas in Pakistan (SI Text), and recent work (33) on the upper Ghaggar-Hakra interfluve in India also documented Holocene channel sands that are approximately 4,300 y old. On the upper interfluve, fine-grained floodplain deposition continued until the end of the Late Harappan Phase, as recent as 2,900 y ago (33) (Fig. 2B). This widespread fluvial redistribution of sediment suggests that reliable monsoon rains were able to sustain perennial rivers earlier during the Holocene and explains why Harappan settlements flourished along the entire Ghaggar-Hakra system without access to a glacier-fed river."^[3]

Referințe

^ ^a ^b ^c Wright 2009, p. 1.
^ ^a ^b Wright 2009.
^ ^a ^b ^c Giosan et al. 2012.
^ Wright 2009, pp. 115–125.
^ ^a ^b Dyson 2018, p. 29.
^ ^a ^b McIntosh 2008, p. 187.
^ Malik, Nishant (2020). „Uncovering transitions in paleoclimate time series and the climate driven demise of an ancient civilization”. Chaos: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Nonlinear Science. Nishant Malik, Chaos (2020). 30 (8): 083108. Bibcode:2020Chaos..30h3108M. doi:10.1063/5.0012059. PMID 32872795.
^ ^a ^b Habib 2015, p. 13.
^ Wright 2009, p. 2.
^ Possehl 2002a.
^ Eroare la citare: Etichetă <ref> invalidă; niciun text nu a fost furnizat pentru referințele numite MorrisonJunker2002
^ Possehl 2002, p. 20.
^ Singh, Upinder 2008, p. 137. . "Today, the count of Harappan sites has risen to about 1,022, of which 406 are in Pakistan and 616 in India. Of these, only 97 have so far been excavated."
^ ^a ^b Coningham & Young 2015, p. 192.
^ ^a ^b Wright 2009, p. 107.
^ Shaffer 1992, I:441–464, II:425–446..
^ Kenoyer 1991.
^ „We are all Harappans”. Outlook India.
^ Ratnagar 2006a, p. 25.
^ Lockard, Craig (2010). Societies, Networks, and Transitions. Volume 1: To 1500 (ed. 2nd). India: Cengage Learning. p. 40. ISBN 978-1-4390-8535-6.
^ ^a ^b Wright 2009, p. 10.
^ ^a ^b Habib 2002, pp. 13–14.
^ Possehl 2002, pp. 8–11.
^ Eroare la citare: Etichetă <ref> invalidă; niciun text nu a fost furnizat pentru referințele numite Singh2008
^ Habib 2002, p. 44.

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Lectură suplimentară

Allchin, Bridget (1997). Origins of a Civilization: The Prehistory and Early Archaeology of South Asia. New York: Viking.
Aronovsky, Ilona; Gopinath, Sujata (2005). The Indus Valley. Chicago: Heinemann.
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Legături externe

External links

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Categoie:Pakistanul presitoric

[2] Wright: "Mesopotamia and Egypt ... co-existed with the Indus civilization during its florescence between 2600 and 1900 BC."^[1]

[4] Wright: "The Indus civilisation is one of three in the 'Ancient East' that, along with Mesopotamia and Pharaonic Egypt, was a cradle of early civilisation in the Old World (Childe, 1950). Mesopotamia and Egypt were longer-lived, but coexisted with Indus civilisation during its florescence between 2600 and 1900 B.C. Of the three, the Indus was the most expansive, extending from today's northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and India."^[2]

[8] Dyson: "Mohenjo-daro and Harappa may each have contained between 30,000 and 60,000 people (perhaps more in the former case). Water transport was crucial for the provisioning of these and other cities. That said, the vast majority of people lived in rural areas. At the height of the Indus valley civilization the subcontinent may have contained 4-6 million people."^[5]

[10] McIntosh: "The enormous potential of the greater Indus region offered scope for huge population increase; by the end of the Mature Harappan period, the Harappans are estimated to have numbered somewhere between 1 and 5 million, probably well below the region's carrying capacity."^[6]

[Note-Brooke-12] Eroare la citare: Etichetă <ref> invalidă; niciun text nu a fost furnizat pentru referințele numite Note-Brooke

[14] Habib: "Harappa, in Sahiwal district of west Punjab, Pakistan, had long been known to archaeologists as an extensive site on the Ravi river, but its true significance as a major city of an early great civilization remained unrecognized until the discovery of Mohenjo-daro near the banks of the Indus, in the Larkana district of Sindh, by Rakhaldas Banerji in 1922. Sir John Marshall, then Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India, used the term 'Indus civilization' for the culture discovered at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, a term doubly apt because of the geographical context implied in the name 'Indus' and the presence of cities implied in the word 'civilization'. Others, notably the Archaeological Survey of India after Independence, have preferred to call it `Harappan', or 'Mature Harappan', taking Harappa to be its type-site."^[8]

[18] Possehl: "There are 1,056 Mature Harappan sites that have been reported of which 96 have been excavated."^[11]

[22] Coningham and Young: "More than 1,000 settlements belonging to the Integrated Era have been identified (Singh, 2008: 137), but there are only five significant urban sites at the peak of the settlement hierarchy (Smith, 2.006a: 110) (Figure 6.2).These are: Mohenjo-daro in the lower Indus plain; Harappa in the western Punjab; Ganweriwala in Cholistan; Dholavira in western Gujarat; and Rakhigarhi in Haryana. Mohenjo-daro covered an area of more than 250 hectares, Harappa exceeded 150 hectares, Dholavira 100 hectares and Ganweriwala and Rakhigarhi around 80 hectares each."^[14]

[24] Wright: "Five major Indus cities are discussed in this chapter. During the Urban period, the early town of Harappa expanded in size and population and became a major center in the Upper Indus. Other cities emerging during the Urban period include Mohenjo-daro in the Lower Indus, Dholavira to the south on the western edge of peninsular India in Kutch, Ganweriwala in Cholistan, and a fifth city, Rakhigarhi, on the Ghaggar-Hakra. Rakhigarhi will be discussed briefly in view of the limited published material."^[15]

[31] Wright: "Unable to state the age of the civilization, he went on to observe that the Indus (which he (John Marshall) named after the river system) artifacts differed from any known other civilizations in the region, ..."^[21]

[33] Habib: "Sir John Marshall, then Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India, used the term 'Indus civilization' for the culture discovered at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, a term doubly apt because of the geographical context implied in the name 'Indus' and the presence of cities implied in the word 'civilization'. Others, notably the Archaeological Survey of India after Independence, have preferred to call it 'Harappan', or 'Mature Harappan', taking Harappa to be its type-site."^[22]

[37] Giosan (2012): "Numerous speculations have advanced the idea that the Ghaggar-Hakra fluvial system, at times identified with the lost mythical river of Sarasvati (e.g., 4, 5, 7, 19), was a large glacier fed Himalayan river. Potential sources for this river include the Yamuna River, the Sutlej River, or both rivers. However, the lack of large-scale incision on the interfluve demonstrates that large, glacier-fed rivers did not flow across the Ghaggar-Hakra region during the Holocene. ... The present Ghaggar-Hakra valley and its tributary rivers are currently dry or have seasonal flows. Yet rivers were undoubtedly active in this region during the Urban Harappan Phase. We recovered sandy fluvial deposits approximately 5,400 y old at Fort Abbas in Pakistan (SI Text), and recent work (33) on the upper Ghaggar-Hakra interfluve in India also documented Holocene channel sands that are approximately 4,300 y old. On the upper interfluve, fine-grained floodplain deposition continued until the end of the Late Harappan Phase, as recent as 2,900 y ago (33) (Fig. 2B). This widespread fluvial redistribution of sediment suggests that reliable monsoon rains were able to sustain perennial rivers earlier during the Holocene and explains why Harappan settlements flourished along the entire Ghaggar-Hakra system without access to a glacier-fed river."^[3]

[FOOTNOTEWright20091-1] Wright 2009, p. 1.

[FOOTNOTEWright2009-3] Wright 2009.

[FOOTNOTEGiosanCliftMacklinFuller2012-5] Giosan et al. 2012.

[FOOTNOTEWright2009115–125-6] Wright 2009, pp. 115–125.

[FOOTNOTEDyson201829-7] Dyson 2018, p. 29.

[FOOTNOTEMcIntosh2008187-9] McIntosh 2008, p. 187.

[11] Malik, Nishant (2020). „Uncovering transitions in paleoclimate time series and the climate driven demise of an ancient civilization”. Chaos: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Nonlinear Science. Nishant Malik, Chaos (2020). 30 (8): 083108. Bibcode:2020Chaos..30h3108M. doi:10.1063/5.0012059. PMID 32872795.

[FOOTNOTEHabib201513-13] Habib 2015, p. 13.

[FOOTNOTEWright20092-15] Wright 2009, p. 2.

[FOOTNOTEPossehl2002a-16] Possehl 2002a.

[MorrisonJunker2002-17] Eroare la citare: Etichetă <ref> invalidă; niciun text nu a fost furnizat pentru referințele numite MorrisonJunker2002

[FOOTNOTEPossehl200220-19] Possehl 2002, p. 20.

[Singh2008-p137-20] Singh, Upinder 2008, p. 137. . "Today, the count of Harappan sites has risen to about 1,022, of which 406 are in Pakistan and 616 in India. Of these, only 97 have so far been excavated."

[FOOTNOTEConinghamYoung2015192-21] Coningham & Young 2015, p. 192.

[FOOTNOTEWright2009107-23] Wright 2009, p. 107.

[Shaffer_1992_loc=I:441–464,_II:425–446-25] Shaffer 1992, I:441–464, II:425–446..

[FOOTNOTEKenoyer1991-26] Kenoyer 1991.

[27] „We are all Harappans”. Outlook India.

[FOOTNOTERatnagar2006a25-28] Ratnagar 2006a, p. 25.

[29] Lockard, Craig (2010). Societies, Networks, and Transitions. Volume 1: To 1500 (ed. 2nd). India: Cengage Learning. p. 40. ISBN 978-1-4390-8535-6.

[FOOTNOTEWright200910-30] Wright 2009, p. 10.

[FOOTNOTEHabib200213–14-32] Habib 2002, pp. 13–14.

[FOOTNOTEPossehl2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXVgeAAAAQBAJpgPA8_8–11]-34] Possehl 2002, pp. 8–11.

[Singh2008-35] Eroare la citare: Etichetă <ref> invalidă; niciun text nu a fost furnizat pentru referințele numite Singh2008

[FOOTNOTEHabib200244-36] Habib 2002, p. 44.

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@@ Linia 7: / Linia 7: @@
 |majorsites  = Harappa, [[Mohenjo-daro]] ({{coord|27|19|45|N|68|08|20|E|display=inline,title}}), [[Dholavira]], [[Ganeriwala]], și [[Rakhigarhi]]
 |period      = [[Epoca Bronzului|Asia de Sud în Epoca Bronzului]]
-|dates       = {{circa|[[3300 BCE|3300]]|[[1300 BCE]]}}
+|dates       = {{circa|[[3300 î.Hr.|3300]]|[[1300 î.Hr.]]}}
 |precededby  = [[Mehrgarh]]
 |followedby  = [[Cultura ceramicii pictate gri]]<br />[[Cultura cimitirului H]]
@@ Linia 24: / Linia 24: @@
 [[Limba harappă]] nu este atestată direct, iar apartenența sa este necunoscută, deoarece [[Sigiliile din Valea Indului|scrierea harappă]] a rămas nedescifrată.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/we-are-all-harappans/300463 |title=We are all Harappans |series=Outlook India}}</ref> O relație cu [[Limbi dravidiene|familia dravidiană]] sau cu cea [[Limbi elamo-dravidiene|elamo-dravidiană]] este favorizată de o partea a cercetătorilor.{{sfn|Ratnagar|2006a|p=25}}<ref>{{cite book |author=Lockard, Craig |year=2010 |title=Societies, Networks, and Transitions |volume=Volume&nbsp;1: To 1500 |publisher=Cengage Learning |location=India |isbn=978-1-4390-8535-6 |edition=2nd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u4VOYN0dmqMC |page=40}}</ref>
+==Nume==
+Civilizația de pe Valea Indului este numită după sistemul fluvial al [[Ind|Indului]] în ale cărui [[câmpie aluvială|câmpii aluviale]] au fost identificate și excavate siturile timpurii ale civilizației.{{sfn|Wright|2009|p=10}}{{refn|group=lower-alpha|Wright: "Unable to state the age of the civilization, he went on to observe that the Indus (which he ([[John Marshall (arheolog)|John Marshall]]) named after the river system) artifacts differed from any known other civilizations in the region, ..."{{sfn|Wright|2009|p=10}} }} Urmând o tradiție în arheologie, civilizația este denumită uneori ''civilizația harappa'' sau ''civilizația harappă'', după [[Harappa]], primul sit care a fost excavat în anii 1920; acest lucru este valabil mai ales pentru utilizarea folosită de [[Studiul Arheologic din India]] după independența Indiei în 1947.{{sfn|Habib|2002|pp=13–14}}{{refn|group=lower-alpha|Habib: "Sir John Marshall, then Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India, used the term 'Indus civilization' for the culture discovered at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, a term doubly apt because of the geographical context implied in the name 'Indus' and the presence of cities implied in the word 'civilization'. Others, notably the Archaeological Survey of India after Independence, have preferred to call it 'Harappan', or 'Mature Harappan', taking Harappa to be its type-site."{{sfn|Habib|2002|pp=13–14}}}}
+Termenul „Ghaggar-Hakra” figurează în mod evident în etichetele moderne aplicate civilizației de pe Valea Indului datorită unui număr bun de situri găsite de-a lungul [[Râul Ghaggar-Hakra|râului Ghaggar-Hakra]] în nord-vestul Indiei și estul Pakistanului.{{sfn|Possehl|2002|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XVgeAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8 8–11]}} Termenii „Civilizația Ind-Sarasvati” și „Civilizația Sindhu-Saraswati” au fost, de asemenea, folosiți în literatură după o identificare presupusă a lui Ghaggar-Hakra cu [[râul Saraswati]] descris în primele capitole din [[Rig Veda]], o colecție de imnuri scrise în [[sanscrita vedică|sanscrita arhaică]] în mileniul 2 î.Hr..<ref name="Singh2008"/>{{sfn|Habib|2002|p=44}} Cercetări geofizice recente sugerează că spre deosebire de Sarasvati, ale cărui descrieri în Rig Veda sunt cele ale unui râu hrănit cu zăpadă, Ghaggar-Hakra a fost un sistem de râuri perene hrănite cu musoni, care au devenit sezoniere în perioada în care civilizația s-a diminuat, aproximativ acum 4.000 de ani.{{Sfn|Giosan|Clift|Macklin|Fuller|2012}}{{refn|group=lower-alpha|Giosan (2012): "Numerous speculations have advanced the idea that the Ghaggar-Hakra fluvial system, at times identified with the lost mythical river of Sarasvati (e.g., 4, 5, 7, 19), was a large glacier fed Himalayan river. Potential sources for this river include the Yamuna River, the Sutlej River, or both rivers. However, the lack of large-scale incision on the interfluve demonstrates that large, glacier-fed rivers did not flow across the Ghaggar-Hakra region during the Holocene. ... The present Ghaggar-Hakra valley and its tributary rivers are currently dry or have seasonal flows. Yet rivers were undoubtedly active in this region during the Urban Harappan Phase. We recovered sandy fluvial deposits approximately 5,400&nbsp;y old at Fort Abbas in Pakistan (SI Text), and recent work (33) on the upper Ghaggar-Hakra interfluve in India also documented Holocene channel sands that are approximately 4,300&nbsp;y old. On the upper interfluve, fine-grained floodplain deposition continued until the end of the Late Harappan Phase, as recent as 2,900&nbsp;y ago (33) (Fig.&nbsp;2B). This widespread fluvial redistribution of sediment suggests that reliable monsoon rains were able to sustain perennial rivers earlier during the Holocene and explains why Harappan settlements flourished along the entire Ghaggar-Hakra system without access to a glacier-fed river."{{Sfn|Giosan|Clift|Macklin|Fuller|2012}}}}
+== Note ==
+{{notelist}}
+== Referințe ==
+{{reflist}}
+== Bibliografie ==
+{{Refbegin|30em}}
+<!-- A -->
+* {{cite book |last1=Allchin |first1=Bridget |author-link1=Bridget Allchin |last2=Allchin |first2=Raymond |year=1982 |title=The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan |isbn=9780521285506 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r4s-YsP6vcIC}}
+* {{cite book |editor-last=Allchin |editor-first=F. Raymond |editor-link=F. Raymond Allchin |year=1995 |title=The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States |location=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521376952 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5kI02_zW70C}}
+<!-- B -->
+* {{cite book |last=Brooke |first=John L.|title=Climate Change and the Course of Global History: A Rough Journey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O9TSAgAAQBAJ |year=2014 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-87164-8}}
+<!-- C -->
+* {{cite book | last1 =Cavalli-Sforza | first1 =Luigi Luca | last2 =Menozzi | first2 =Paolo | last3 =Piazza | first3 =Alberto | year =1994 | title =The History and Geography of Human Genes | publisher =Princeton University Press}}
+* {{cite journal |display-authors=4 |vauthors=Clift PD, Carter A, Giosan L, Durcan J, ((Duller GAT)), Macklin MG, Alizai A, Tabrez AR, Danish M, VanLaningham S, Fuller DQ |title=U-Pb zircon dating evidence for a Pleistocene Sarasvati River and capture of the Yamuna River |journal=Geology |volume=40|issue=3 |date=March 2012 |pages=211–214 |issn=0091-7613 |doi=10.1130/G32840.1 |bibcode=2012Geo....40..211C }}
+* {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Alexander |author-link=Alexander Cunningham |year=1875 |title=Archaeological Survey of India, Report for the Year 1872–1873, Vol. 5 |place=Calcutta |publisher=The Superintendent Of Government |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.547220}} [[Archaeological Survey of India]]
+* {{cite book |last1=Coningham |first1=Robin |author1-link=Robin Coningham |last2=Young |first2=Ruth |year=2015 |title=The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c. 6500 BCE – 200 CE |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-41898-7}}
+* {{cite journal |last=Costantini |first=L. |date=2008 |title=The first farmers in Western Pakistan: The evidence of the Neolithic agropastoral settlement of Mehrgarh |journal=Pragdhara |volume=18 |pages=167–178}}
+<!-- D -->
+* {{cite journal | last1 =Derenko | first1 =Miroslava | year =2013 | title =Complete Mitochondrial DNA Diversity in Iranians | journal =PLOS ONE |volume=8 |issue=11 |page=80673 | doi =10.1371/journal.pone.0080673 | pmid=24244704 | pmc=3828245|bibcode=2013PLoSO...880673D }}
+* {{cite book |last=Dyson |first=Tim |title=A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ |year=2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-882905-8}}
+<!-- F -->
+* {{cite book |last=Fisher |first=Michael H. |title=An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ |year=2018 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-11162-2}}
+* {{cite journal |last=Fuller |first=D.Q. |year=2006 |title=Agricultural origins and frontiers in South Asia: a working synthesis |journal=J World Prehistory |volume=20 |pages=1–86 |doi=10.1007/s10963-006-9006-8 |s2cid=189952275}}
+<!-- G -->
+* {{cite journal | last1 =Gallego Romero | first1 =Irene | year =2011 | title =Herders of Indian and European Cattle Share their Predominant Allele for Lactase Persistence | journal =Mol. Biol. Evol. | doi =10.1093/molbev/msr190 | display-authors =etal | pmid=21836184 | volume=29 | issue =1 | pages=249–260| doi-access =free }}
+* {{cite journal |last1=Gangal |first1=Kavita |last2=Sarson |first2=Graeme R. |last3=Shukurov |first3=Anvar |year=2014 |title=The Near-Eastern roots of the Neolithic in South Asia |journal=PLOS ONE |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0095714 |pmid=24806472 |pmc=4012948 |volume=9 |issue=5 |at=e95714| bibcode=2014PLoSO...995714G }}
+* {{cite journal |display-authors=4 |vauthors=Giosan L, Clift PD, Macklin MG, Fuller DQ, Constantinescu S, Durcan JA, Stevens T, ((Duller GAT)), Tabrez AR, Gangal K, Adhikari R, Alizai A, Filip F, VanLaningham S, ((Syvitski JPM)) |title=Fluvial landscapes of the Harappan civilization |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=109 |issue=26 |year=2012 |pages=E1688–E1694 |issn=0027-8424 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1112743109 |pmid=22645375 |pmc=3387054 |bibcode=2012PNAS..109E1688G}}
+<!-- H -->
+* {{cite book |last=Habib |first=Irfan |author-link=Irfan Habib |title=The Indus Civilization |year=2015 |publisher=[[Tulika Books]] |isbn=978-93-82381-53-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t4gUjwEACAAJ}}
+* {{cite book |last=Habib |first=Irfan |year=2002 |title=The Making of History: Essays Presented to Irfan Habib |publisher=Anthem Press}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Heggarty |first1=Paul |last2=Renfrew |first2=Collin |year=2014 |chapter=South and Island Southeast Asia; Languages |editor-last1=Renfrew |editor-first1=Collin |editor-last2=Bahn |editor-first2=Paul |title=The Cambridge World Prehistory |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}
+* {{cite book |last=Hiltebeitel|first=Alf |author-link=Alf Hiltebeitel |editor=Adluri, Vishwa |editor2=Bagchee, Joydeep|title=When the Goddess was a Woman: Mahabharata Ethnographies – Essays by Alf Hiltebeitel| chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZupXwid01CoC|year=2011|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-19380-2 |chapter=The Indus Valley "Proto-Śiva", Re-examined through Reflections on the Goddess, the Buffalo, and the Symbolism of vāhanas}}
+<!-- J -->
+* {{cite conference |last=Jarrige |first=Jean-Francois |date=2008a |title=Mehrgarh Neolithic |book-title=Pragdhara |volume=18 |pages=136–154 |conference=International Seminar on the First Farmers in Global Perspective – Lucknow, India – 18–20 January 2006 |url=http://www.archaeology.up.nic.in/doc/mn_jfj.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303221610/http://archaeology.up.nic.in/doc/mn_jfj.pdf |archive-date=3 March 2016}}
+* {{cite journal |last=Jarrige |first=C. |date=2008b |title=The figurines of the first farmers at Mehrgarh and their offshoots |journal=Pragdhara |volume=18 |pages=155–166}}
+<!-- K -->
+* {{cite journal | author-link=Jonathan Mark Kenoyer|last=Kenoyer|first=Jonathan Mark |title=The Indus Valley tradition of Pakistan and Western India |journal=Journal of World Prehistory |year=1991 |volume=5 |pages=1–64 |doi=10.1007/BF00978474 |issue=4|s2cid=41175522}}
+* {{cite journal |last=Kenoyer |first=Jonathan Mark |author-link=Jonathan Mark Kenoyer |year=1997 |title=Trade and Technology of the Indus Valley: New Insights from Harappa, Pakistan |journal=World Archaeology |volume=29 |issue=2: "High–Definition Archaeology: Threads Through the Past" |pages=262–280 |doi=10.1080/00438243.1997.9980377}}
+* {{cite book |last=Kenoyer|first=Jonathan Mark|author-link=Jonathan Mark Kenoyer|year=1998|title=Ancient cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-577940-0}}
+* {{harvc |last=Kenoyer |first=Jonathan Mark |year=2006 |c=Cultures and Societies of the Indus Tradition. In Historical Roots |in=Thapar |pp=21–49}}
+* {{cite journal | display-authors=4 |vauthors=Kivisild T, Bamshad MJ, Kaldma K, Metspalu M, Metspalu E, Reidla M, Laos S, Parik J, Watkins WS, Dixon ME, Papiha SS, Mastana SS, Mir MR, Ferak V, Villems R | year=1999 | title=Deep common ancestry of Indian and western-Eurasian mitochondrial DNA lineages | journal=Curr. Biol. | volume=9 | issue=22 | pages=1331–1334 | doi=10.1016/s0960-9822(00)80057-3 | pmid=10574762 | s2cid=2821966 | url=http://jorde-lab.genetics.utah.edu/elibrary/Kivisild_1999.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051030014804/http://jorde-lab.genetics.utah.edu/elibrary/Kivisild_1999.pdf | url-status=dead | archive-date=30 October 2005}}
+* {{cite book | last =Kumar | first =Dhavendra | year=2004 | title =Genetic Disorders of the Indian Subcontinent | publisher =Springer | access-date =25 November 2008 | isbn =978-1-4020-1215-0 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=bpl0LXKj13QC}}
+<!-- L -->
+* {{cite book |last=Lal|first=B.B.|author-link=B. B. Lal|year=2002|title=The Sarasvati flows on}}
+<!-- M -->
+* {{cite journal |last1=MacDonald |first1=Glen |title=Potential influence of the Pacific Ocean on the Indian summer monsoon and Harappan decline |journal=Quaternary International |volume=229 |issue=1–2 |year=2011 |pages=140–148 |issn=1040-6182 |doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2009.11.012|bibcode=2011QuInt.229..140M }}
+* {{cite journal |last1=Madella |first1=Marco |last2=Fuller |first2=Dorian Q. |title=Palaeoecology and the Harappan Civilisation of South Asia: a reconsideration |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |volume=25 |issue=11–12 |year=2006 |pages=1283–1301 |issn=0277-3791 |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2005.10.012 |bibcode=2006QSRv...25.1283M }}
+* {{cite book |editor-last1=Mallory |editor-first1=J.P. |editor-last2=Adams |editor-first2=Douglas Q. |year=1997 |title=Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture |isbn=9781884964985 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzU3RIV2BWIC}}
+* {{cite book |last=Manuel|first=Mark|year=2010|chapter=Chronology and Culture-History in the Indus Valley |pages=145–152 |editor-last1=Gunawardhana|editor-first1=P. |editor-last2=Adikari|editor-first2=G. |editor-last3=Coningham |editor-first3=R.A.E. |title=Sirinimal Lakdusinghe Felicitation Volume |place=Battaramulla |publisher=Neptune Publication |isbn=9789550028054 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/243477}}
+* {{cite book |editor-last=Marshall|editor-first=John|editor-link=John Marshall (archaeologist) |year=1931 |title=Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization: Being an Official Account of Archaeological Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro Carried Out by the Government of India Between the Years 1922 and 1927 |publisher=Arthur Probsthain|location=London |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.722}}
+* {{cite book |editor-last=Marshall |editor-first=John |year=1996 |orig-year=1931 |title=Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization: Being an Official Account of Archaeological Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro Carried Out by the Government of India Between the Years 1922 and 1927 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-81-206-1179-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ds_hazstxY4C}}
+* {{cite journal |last1=Mascarenhas |first1=Desmond D. |last2=Raina |first2=Anupuma |last3=Aston |first3=Christopher E. |last4 =Sanghera |first4=Dharambir K. | year=2015 |title=Genetic and Cultural Reconstruction of the Migration of an Ancient Lineage |journal =BioMed Research International |volume=2015 |doi=10.1155/2015/651415 |pmid=26491681 |pmc=4605215 |pages=1–16}}
+* {{cite book |last=Masson|first=Charles|title=Narrative of Various Journeys in Balochistan, Afghanistan and the Panjab: Including a Residence in Those Countries from 1826 to 1838, Volume 1 |year=1842 |publisher=Richard Bentley |location=London |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nqxUw0Ybq9EC}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Mathew |first1=K.S. |year=2017 |title=Shipbuilding, Navigation and the Portuguese in Pre-modern India |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-58833-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u0IwDwAAQBAJ}}
+* {{cite book |last=McIntosh|first=Jane|title=The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives|year=2008 |publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-907-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC}}
+* {{cite book |last=Michon |first=Daniel |year=2015 |title=Archaeology and Religion in Early Northwest India: History, Theory, Practice |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-32457-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=675cCgAAQBAJ}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Morris |first1=A.E.J. |year=1994 |title=History of Urban Form: Before the Industrial Revolutions |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=978-0-582-30154-2 |edition=3rd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=whBEAgAAQBAJ |access-date=20 May 2015}}
+* {{cite journal |last1 =Mukherjee | first1 =Namita |last2 =Nebel | first2 =Almut | last3=Oppenheim | first3 =Ariella | last4 =Majumder | first4 =Partha P. | year =2001 | title=High-resolution analysis of Y-chromosomal polymorphisms reveals signatures of population movements from central Asia and West Asia into India | journal =Journal of Genetics | volume =80 | issue =3 | pages=125–135 | doi=10.1007/BF02717908 | pmid=11988631 | s2cid =13267463}}
+<!-- P -->
+* {{cite journal |last1=Palanichamy |first1=Malliya Gounder |year=2015 |title=West Eurasian mtDNA lineages in India: an insight into the spread of the Dravidian language and the origins of the caste system |journal=Human Genetics |volume=134 |issue=6 |pages=637–647 |doi=10.1007/s00439-015-1547-4 |pmid=25832481| s2cid=14202246}}
+* <span class="citation web" id="Reference-Parpola-2005">{{cite web |author-link=Asko Parpola |last=Parpola |first=Asko |url=http://www.harappa.com/script/indusscript.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060306111112/http://www.harappa.com/script/indusscript.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 March 2006 |title=Study of the Indus Script |date=19 May 2005 }} (50th ICES Tokyo Session)</span><!-- This element is used linked to from the inline references, please don't delete -->
+* {{cite book | last =Parpola | first =Asko | year =2015 | title =The Roots of Hinduism. The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilisation | publisher =Oxford University Press}}
+* {{cite journal |last1=Ponton |first1=Camilo |last2=Giosan |first2=Liviu |last3=Eglinton |first3=Tim I. |last4=Fuller |first4=Dorian Q. |last5=Johnson |first5=Joel E. |last6=Kumar |first6=Pushpendra |last7=Collett |first7=Tim S. |title=Holocene aridification of India |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |volume=39 |issue=3 |year=2012 |at=L03704 |issn=0094-8276 |doi=10.1029/2011GL050722 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2012GeoRL..39.3704P |url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1347997/1/2011GL050722.pdf |hdl=1912/5100 |hdl-access=free |display-authors=4 }}
+* {{cite book |last=Possehl|first=Gregory L. |author-link=Gregory Possehl |title=The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XVgeAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA154 |year=2002 |publisher=Rowman Altamira |isbn=978-0-7591-1642-9 }}
+* {{cite book |last=Possehl|first=Gregory L.|editor1=Morrison, Kathleen D. |editor2=Junker, Laura L. |title=Forager-Traders in South and Southeast Asia: Long-Term Histories|year=2002a|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-01636-0|pages=62–76|chapter=Harappans and hunters: economic interaction and specialization in prehistoric India |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6IAUKE7xv_cC&pg=PA62}}
+<!-- R -->
+* {{cite journal |last1=Rashid |first1=Harunur |last2=England |first2=Emily |last3=Thompson |first3=Lonnie |last4=Polyak |first4=Leonid |title=Late Glacial to Holocene Indian Summer Monsoon Variability Based upon Sediment Records Taken from the Bay of Bengal |journal=Terrestrial, Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences |volume=22 |issue=2 |year=2011 |pages=215–228 |doi=10.3319/TAO.2010.09.17.02(TibXS) |doi-access=free |url=http://research.bpcrc.osu.edu/Icecore/publications/Rashid%20et%20al%20Terr%20Atmos%20Ocean%20Sci%202011v222p215.pdf |issn=1017-0839}}
+* {{Cite journal |last=Ratnagar |first=Shereen |date=April 2004 |title=Archaeology at the Heart of a Political Confrontation The Case of Ayodhya |journal=Current Anthropology |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=239–259 |doi=10.1086/381044 |jstor=10.1086/381044 |s2cid=149773944 |url=http://dro.dur.ac.uk/5696/1/5696.pdf}}
+* {{cite book |last=Ratnagar |first=Shereen |author-link=Shereen Ratnagar |year=2006a |title=Trading Encounters: From the Euphrates to the Indus in the Bronze Age |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=India |isbn=978-0-19-566603-8 |edition=2nd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5tpQgAACAAJ}}
+* {{cite book |last=Ratnagar |first=Shereen |year=2006b |title=Understanding Harappa: Civilization in the Greater Indus Valley |location=New Delhi |publisher=Tulika Books |isbn=978-81-89487-02-7}}
+<!-- S -->
+* {{cite journal |display-authors=4 |last1=Sarkar |first1=Anindya |last2=Mukherjee |first2=Arati Deshpande |last3=Bera |first3=M. K. |last4=Das |first4=B. |last5=Juyal |first5=Navin |last6=Morthekai |first6=P. |last7=Deshpande |first7=R. D. |last8=Shinde |first8=V. S. |last9=Rao |first9=L. S. |date=May 2016 |title=Oxygen isotope in archaeological bioapatites from India: Implications to climate change and decline of Bronze Age Harappan civilization |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=6 |issue=1 |at=26555 |doi=10.1038/srep26555 |doi-access=free |pmid=27222033 |pmc=4879637 |bibcode=2016NatSR...626555S }}
+* {{cite book |last=Shaffer|first=Jim G.|author-link=Jim G. Shaffer|year=1992|chapter=The Indus Valley, Baluchistan and Helmand Traditions: Neolithic Through Bronze Age |title=Chronologies in Old World Archaeology |edition=Second |editor=R.W. Ehrich |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press }}
+* {{cite book |last=Shaffer|first=Jim G. |author-link=Jim G. Shaffer |chapter=Migration, Philology and South Asian Archaeology |title=Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia. |editor=Bronkhorst |editor2=Deshpande |year=1999 |isbn=978-1-888789-04-1 |publisher=Harvard University, Dept. of Sanskrit and Indian Studies |location=Cambridge}}
+*Singh, Kavita, "The Museum Is National", Chapter 4 in: Mathur, Saloni and Singh, Kavita (eds), ''No Touching, No Spitting, No Praying: The Museum in South Asia'', 2015, Routledge, [https://www.academia.edu/12710849/The_Museum_is_National PDF on academia.edu] (nb this is different to the article by the same author with the same title in ''India International Centre Quarterly'', vol. 29, no. 3/4, 2002, pp. 176–196, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/23005825 JSTOR], which does not mention the IVC objects)
+* {{cite journal |author=Singh, Sakshi |display-authors=etal |year=2016 |title=Dissecting the influence of Neolithic demic diffusion on Indian Y-chromosome pool through J2-M172 haplogroup |journal=Scientific Reports |doi=10.1038/srep19157 |pmid=26754573 |pmc=4709632 |volume=6 |at=19157| bibcode=2016NatSR...619157S}}
+* {{cite book |last=Singh, Upinder |year=2008 |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-81-317-1120-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC }}
+* {{cite journal |last=Srinivasan |first=Doris |title=The so-called Proto-Śiva seal from Mohenjo-Daro: An iconological assessment |journal=Archives of Asian Art |year=1975 |volume=29 |pages=47–58 |author-link=Doris Meth Srinivasan |jstor=20062578 }}
+* {{cite book |last=Srinivasan |first=Doris Meth |title=Many Heads, Arms and Eyes: Origin, Meaning and Form in Multiplicity in Indian Art |year=1997 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-10758-8 |author-link=Doris Meth Srinivasan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vZheP9dIX9wC }}
+* {{cite journal |last1=Staubwasser |first1=M. |last2=Sirocko|first2=F. |last3=Grootes |first3=P. M. |last4=Segl |first4=M. |title=Climate change at the 4.2 ka BP termination of the Indus valley civilization and Holocene south Asian monsoon variability |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |volume=30 |issue=8 |pages=1425 |year=2003 |issn=0094-8276 |doi=10.1029/2002GL016822|bibcode=2003GeoRL..30.1425S }}
+* {{cite journal |last=Sullivan|first=Herbert P.|title=A Re-Examination of the Religion of the Indus Civilization |journal=History of Religions |year=1964 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=115–125 |jstor=1061875|doi=10.1086/462498 |s2cid=162278147}}
+<!-- T -->
+* {{cite book |last=Thapar |first=Romila |author-link=Romila Thapar |title=Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-5irrXX0apQC&pg=FA85 |year=2004 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-24225-8 }}
+* {{cite book |editor-last=Thapar |editor-first=Romila |year=2006 |title=the Making of 'the Aryan' |location=New Delhi |publisher=National Book Trust}}
+<!-- W -->
+* {{cite book |last=Wright |first=Rita P. |author-link=Rita P. Wright |title=The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy, and Society |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gAgFPQAACAAJ |access-date=29 September 2013 |year=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-57219-4}}
+{{Refend}}
+==Lectură suplimentară==
+{{Refbegin|30em}}
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+* {{cite book |last=Aronovsky |first=Ilona |author2=Gopinath, Sujata |year=2005 |title=The Indus Valley |location=Chicago |publisher=Heinemann }}
+* {{cite journal |last1=Bar-Matthews |first1=Miryam |last2=Ayalon |first2=Avner |title=Mid-Holocene climate variations revealed by high-resolution speleothem records from Soreq Cave, Israel and their correlation with cultural changes |journal=The Holocene |volume=21 |issue=1 |year=2011 |pages=163–171 |issn=0959-6836 |doi=10.1177/0959683610384165|bibcode=2011Holoc..21..163B |s2cid=129380409 }}
+* {{cite book |last=Basham |first=A.L. |title=The Wonder that was India |publisher=Sidgwick & Jackson |location=London |year=1967 |pages=11–14 }}
+* {{cite book |last=Chakrabarti |first=D.K. |year=2004 |title=Indus Civilization Sites in India: New Discoveries|publisher=Marg Publications |location=Mumbai |isbn=978-81-85026-63-3 }}
+* {{cite book |last=Dani|first=Ahmad Hassan|author-link=Ahmad Hasan Dani|year=1984|title=Short History of Pakistan (Book 1)|publisher=University of Karachi}}
+* {{cite book |editor-last=Dani |editor-first=Ahmad Hassan |editor-link=Ahmad Hasan Dani |editor2=Mohen, J-P. |year=1996 |title=History of Humanity, Volume III, From the Third Millennium to the Seventh Century BC |location=New York/Paris |publisher=Routledge/UNESCO |isbn=978-0-415-09306-4 }}
+* {{cite journal |last=Dikshit |first=K.N. |title=Origin of Early Harappan Cultures in the Sarasvati Valley: Recent Archaeological Evidence and Radiometric Dates |journal=Journal of Indian Ocean Archaeology |url=http://server2.docfoc.com/uploads/Z2015/11/21/vESLakMBYz/45a03572f94e7a873d7c350293cca188.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118032736/http://server2.docfoc.com/uploads/Z2015/11/21/vESLakMBYz/45a03572f94e7a873d7c350293cca188.pdf |archive-date=18 January 2017 |url-status=dead |year=2013 |issue=9 }}
+* {{cite book |editor-first=S.P.|editor-last=Gupta |editor-link=S. P. Gupta |year=1995 |title=The lost Sarasvati and the Indus Civilisation |publisher=Kusumanjali Prakashan |location=Jodhpur }}
+* {{cite book |first=S.P. |last=Gupta |author-link=S. P. Gupta |year=1996 |title=The Indus-Saraswati Civilization: Origins, Problems and Issues |isbn=978-81-85268-46-0 |publisher=Pratibha Prakashan |location=Delhi }}
+* {{cite journal | last =Kathiroli | year=2004|title=Recent Marine Archaeological Finds in Khambhat, Gujarat |journal=Journal of Indian Ocean Archaeology |issue=1 |pages=141–149 |display-authors=etal}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Kenoyer|first1=Jonathan Mark|author-link=Jonathan Mark Kenoyer|last2=Heuston |first2=Kimberly |year=2005|title=The Ancient South Asian World|location=Oxford/New York|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-517422-9}}
+* {{cite book |editor-first=Nayanjot |editor-last=Lahiri|year=2000|title=The Decline and Fall of the Indus Civilisation|isbn=978-81-7530-034-7|publisher=Permanent Black|location=Delhi}}
+* {{cite book |last=Lal|first=B.B.|author-link=B. B. Lal|year=1998|title=India 1947–1997: New Light on the Indus Civilization|isbn=978-81-7305-129-6|publisher=Aryan Books International|location=New Delhi}}
+* {{cite book |last=Lal|first=B.B.|author-link=B. B. Lal|year=1997|title=The Earliest Civilisation of South Asia (Rise, Maturity and Decline)}}
+* {{cite journal |last1=Lazaridis |first1=Iosif |display-authors=etal |year=2016 |title=Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East |journal=Nature |volume=536 |issue=7617 |pages=419–424 |biorxiv=10.1101/059311 |doi=10.1038/nature19310 |bibcode=2016Natur.536..419L |pmc=5003663 |pmid=27459054}}
+* {{cite journal |last=Mani |first=B.R. |year=2008 |title=Kashmir Neolithic and Early Harappan: A Linkage |journal=Pragdhara |volume=18 |pages=229–247 |url=http://archaeology.up.nic.in/doc/kneh_brm.pdf |access-date=17 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118050909/http://archaeology.up.nic.in/doc/kneh_brm.pdf |archive-date=18 January 2017 |url-status=dead }}
+* {{cite book|last=McIntosh|first=Jane|title=A Peaceful Realm: The Rise And Fall of the Indus Civilization |location=Boulder|publisher=Westview Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-8133-3532-2|url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/peacefulrealmri00mcin}}
+* {{cite journal | year =2009 | title =Y-Chromosome distribution within the geo-linguistic landscape of northwestern Russia | journal =European Journal of Human Genetics | pmid =19259129 | volume =17 | issue =10 | pmc =2986641 | pages =1260–1273 | doi=10.1038/ejhg.2009.6 | vauthors=Mirabal S, Regueiro M, Cadenas AM, Cavalli-Sforza LL, Underhill PA, Verbenko DA, Limborska SA, Herrera RJ |display-authors=4}}
+* {{cite book |author-link=Mohammed Rafique Mughal|last=Mughal|first=Mohammad Rafique|year=1997 |title=Ancient Cholistan, Archaeology and Architecture|publisher=Ferozesons|isbn=978-969-0-01350-7}}
+<!-- N -->
+* {{cite journal |last1=Narasimhan |first1=Vagheesh M. |last2=Anthony |first2=David |last3=Mallory |first3=James |last4=Reich |first4=David |display-authors=etal |date=Sep 2019 |title=The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia |journal=Science |volume=365 |issue=6457 |at=eaat7487 |biorxiv=10.1101/292581 |doi=10.1126/science.aat7487 |doi-access=free |pmid=31488661 |pmc=6822619}}
+* {{cite journal |last1=Pamjav |first1=Horolma |first2=Tibor| last2=Fehér |first3=Endre| last3=Németh |first4=Zsolt |last4=Pádár |year=2012 |title=Brief communication: new Y-chromosome binary markers improve phylogenetic resolution within haplogroup R1a1 |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=149 |issue=4 |pages=611–615 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.22167 |pmid=23115110}}
+* {{cite book |last=Pittman |first=Holly |title=Art of the Bronze Age: southeastern Iran, western Central Asia, and the Indus Valley |location=New York |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-87099-365-7 |url=http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/33948}}
+* {{cite journal |last=Poznik |first=G. David |year=2016 |title=Punctuated bursts in human male demography inferred from 1,244 worldwide Y-chromosome sequences |journal=Nature Genetics |doi=10.1038/ng.3559 |volume=48 |issue=6 |pages=593–599 |pmid=27111036 |pmc=4884158}}
+* {{cite book |last=Rao |first=Shikaripura Ranganatha |author-link=Shikaripura Ranganatha Rao |year=1991 |title=Dawn and Devolution of the Indus Civilisation |isbn=978-81-85179-74-2 |publisher=Aditya Prakashan |location=New Delhi}}
+* {{cite journal | last1 =Semino | first1 =O | last2 =Passarino G | first2 =Oefner PJ | year =2000 | title =The genetic legacy of Paleolithic Homo sapiens sapiens in extant Europeans: A Y chromosome perspective | journal =Science |volume=290 | issue =5494 |pages=1155–1159 | doi=10.1126/science.290.5494.1155 | pmid=11073453| bibcode=2000Sci...290.1155S }}
+* {{cite journal |last1=Sengupta |first1=S |last2=Zhivotovsky |first2=LA |last3=King |first3=R |last4=Mehdi |first4=SQ |last5=Edmonds|first5=CA |last6=Chow |first6=CE |last7=Lin |first7=AA |last8=Mitra |first8=M |last9=Sil |first9=SK |last10=Ramesh |first10=A. |last11=Usha Rani|first11=M.V. |last12=Thakur |first12=Chitra M. |last13=Cavalli-Sforza |first13=L. Luca |last14=Majumder|first14=Partha P. |last15=Underhill |first15=Peter A. |year=2005 |title=Polarity and Temporality of High-Resolution Y-Chromosome Distributions in India Identify Both Indigenous and Exogenous Expansions and Reveal Minor Genetic Influence of Central Asian Pastoralists |journal=American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=78 |issue=2 |pages=202–221 |pmid=16400607 |pmc=1380230 |doi=10.1086/499411 |display-authors=4}}
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+* {{cite journal |last=Underhill |first=Peter A. |display-authors=etal| year=2015 |title=The phylogenetic & geographic structure of Y-chromosome haplogroup R1a |journal=European Journal of Human Genetics |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=124–131 |issn=1018-4813 |doi=10.1038/ejhg.2014.50 |pmid=24667786 |pmc=4266736}}
+* {{cite journal |last=Wells |first=R.S. |year=2001 |title=The Eurasian Heartland: A continental perspective on Y-chromosome diversity |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=98 |issue=18 |pages=10244–10249 |doi=10.1073/pnas.171305098 |bibcode=2001PNAS...9810244W |pmid=11526236 |pmc=56946}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Willey |last2=Phillips |year=1958 |title=Method and Theory in American Archaeology|url=https://archive.org/details/methodtheoryinam1958will }}
+{{Refend}}
+==Legături externe==
+== External links ==
+{{Wikivoyage|Mohenjo-daro}}
+{{Commons category|Indus Valley Civilization}}
+* [http://www.harappa.com/ Harappa și Civilizația de pe Valea Indului la harappa.com]
+* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051125125109/http://pubweb.cc.u-tokai.ac.jp/indus/english/index.html O invitație la Civilizația de pe Valea Indului (Muzeul Metropolitan din Tokyo)]
+* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110629091226/http://www.upenn.edu/researchatpenn/article.php?674&soc Impresii de Sigilii Descoperite în India de Vest]
+[[Categorie:Civilizația de pe Valea Indului| ]]
+[[Categorie:Hinduismul antic]]
+[[Categorie:Asia în Epoca Bronzului]]
+[[Categorie:India preistorică]]
+[[Categoie:Pakistanul presitoric]]
+[[Categorie:Afganistanul preistoric]]
+[[Categorie:Civilizații]]
+[[Categorie:Istoria Asiei de Sud]]